Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine
Volume 6, Issue 2 , Pages 298-317 , April 2010

Chemical power for microscopic robots in capillaries

  • Tad Hogg, PhD

      Affiliations

    • Hewlett-Packard Laboratories, Palo Alto, California, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author: Hewlett-Packard Laboratories, SCL, 1501 Page Mill MS1139, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA.
    • ,
  • Robert A. Freitas Jr, JD

      Affiliations

    • Institute for Molecular Manufacturing, Palo Alto, California, USA

Received 5 June 2009 ,Accepted 2 October 2009.

References 

  1. Ishiyama K, Sendoh M, Arai KI. Magnetic micromachines for medical applications. J Magnetism Magn Mater. 2002;242–245:41–46
  2. Mathieu JB, Martel S, Yahia L, Soulez G, Beaudoin G. Preliminary investigation of the feasibility of magnetic propulsion for future microdevices in blood vessels. Biomed Mater Eng. 2002;15:367–374
  3. Martel S, Mathieu JB, Felfoul O, Chanu A, Aboussouan E, Tamaz S, et al. Automatic navigation of an untethered device in the artery of a living animal using a conventional clinical magnetic resonance imaging system. Appl Phys Lett. 2007;114105:90
  4. Yesin KB, Exner P, Vollmers K, Nelson BJ. Design and control of in-vivo magnetic microrobots. In:  Duncan JS,  Gerig G editor. Proceedings of the 8th international conference on medical image computing and computer-assisted intervention (MICCAI 2005). Berlin: Springer; 2005;p. 819–826
  5. Behkam B, Sitti M. Bacterial flagella-based propulsion and on/off motion control of microscale objects. Appl Phys Lett. 2007;023902:90
  6. Cole E. Fantastic voyage: departure 2009. Wired. 2007;Available at: http://222.wired.com/medtech/health/news/2007/01/72448[Accessed 18 January 2007]
  7. Morris K. Macrodoctor, come meet the nanodoctors. Lancet. 2001;357:778
  8. NIH . National Institutes of Health Roadmap: Nanomedicine. Available at: nihroadmap.nih.gov/nanomedicine/index.asp2003;
  9. Thomas TP, Shukla R, Majoros IJ, Myc A, Baker JR. Polyamidoamine dendrimer-based multifunctional nanoparticles. In:  Mirkin CA,  Niemeyer CM editor. Nanobiotechnology II: More concepts and applications. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-VCH Press; 2007;p. 305–319
  10. Monroe D. Micromedicine to the rescue. Commun ACM. 2009;52:13–15
  11. Popovtzer R, Agrawal A, Kotov NA, Popovtzer A, Balter J, Carey TE, et al. Targeted gold nanoparticles enable molecular CT imaging of cancer. Nano Lett. 2008;8:4593–4596
  12. Sershen S, Westcott S, Halas NJ, West J. Temperature-sensitive polymer-nanoshell composite for photothermally modulated drug delivery. J Biomed Mater Res. 2000;51:293–298
  13. Vo-Dinh T, Kasili P, Wabuyele M. Nanoprobes and nanobiosensors for monitoring and imaging individual living cells. Nanomedicine: NBM. 2006;2:22–30
  14. West JL, Halas NJ. Applications of nanotechnology to biotechnology. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2000;11:215–217
  15. Quintana A, Raczka E, Piehler L, Lee I, Myc A, Majoros I, et al. Design and function of a dendrimer-based therapeutic nanodevice targeted to tumor cells through the folate receptor. Pharm Res. 2000;19:1310–1316
  16. Baker JR, Quintana A, Piehler L, Banazak-Holl M, Tomalia D, Raczka E. The synthesis and testing of anti-cancer therapeutic nanodevices. Biomed Microdevices. 2001;3:61–69
  17. Hessler TABJA, Mecke A, Banaszak-Holl M, Orr BG, Uppuluri S, Tomalia DA, et al. Tapping mode atomic force microscopy investigation of poly(amidoamine) core-shell tecto(dendrimers) using carbon nanoprobes. Langmuir. 2002;18:3127–3133
  18. Freitas RA. Exploratory design in medical nanotechnology: a mechanical artificial red cell. Artif Cells Blood Substit Immobil Biotechnol. 1998;26:411–430
  19. Freitas RA. Nanomedicine. Vol. I: basic capabilities. Georgetown (Tex): Landes Bioscience; 1999;Available at: www.nanomedicine.com/NMI.htm
  20. Freitas RA. Pharmacytes: an ideal vehicle for targeted drug delivery. J Nanosci Nanotechnol. 2006;6:2769–2775
  21. Martel S. The coming invasion of the medical nanorobots. Nanotechnol Perceptions. 2007;3:165–173
  22. Hill C, Amodeo A, Joseph JV, Patel HRH. Nano- and microrobotics: how far is the reality?. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2008;8:1891–1897
  23. Win MN, Smolke CD. Higher-order cellular information processing with synthetic RNA devices. Science. 2008;322:456–460
  24. Martel S, Felfoul O, Mohammadi M. Flagellated bacterial nanorobots for medical interventions in the human body. In: Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE conference on biomedical robotics and biomechatronics. 2008;p. 264–269
  25. Ferber D. Microbes made to order. Science. 2004;303:158–161
  26. Andrianantoandro E, Basu S, Karig DK, Weiss R. Synthetic biology: new engineering rules for an emerging discipline. Mol Systems Biol. 2006;2(msb4100073):E1–E14
  27. Benenson Y, Gil B, Ben-Dor U, Adar R, Shapiro E. An autonomous molecular computer for logical control of gene expression. Nature. 2004;429:423–429
  28. Barreiro A, Rurali R, Harnandez ER, Moser J, Pichler T, Forro L, et al. Subnanometer motion of cargos driven by thermal gradients along carbon nanotubes. Science. 2008;320:775–778
  29. Berna J, Leigh DA, Lubomska M, Mendoza SM, Perez EM, Rudolf P, et al. Macroscopic transport by synthetic molecular machines. Nat Mater. 2005;4:704–710
  30. Collier CP, Wong EW, Belohradsky M, Raymo FM, Stoddart JF, Kuekes PJ, et al. Electronically configurable molecular-based logic gates. Science. 1999;285:391–394
  31. Craighead HG. Nanoelectromechanical systems. Science. 2000;290:1532–1535
  32. Howard J. Molecular motors: structural adaptations to cellular functions. Nature. 1997;389:561–567
  33. Fritz J, Baller MK, Lang HP, Rothuizen H, Vettiger P, Meyer E, et al. Translating biomolecular recognition into nanomechanics. Science. 2000;288:316–318
  34. Marden JH, Allen LR. Molecules, muscles, and machines: universal performance characteristics of motors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99:4161–4166
  35. Montemagno C, Bachand G. Constructing nanomechanical devices powered by biomolecular motors. Nanotechnology. 1999;10:225–231
  36. In:  Wang SY,  Williams RS editor. Nanoelectronics. vol. 80:New York: Springer; 2005;Special issue of Applied Physics A
  37. Kufer SK, Puchner EM, Gumpp H, Liedl T, Gaub HE. Single-molecule cut-and-paste surface assembly. Science. 2008;319:594–596
  38. Ager A. Inflammation: border crossings. Nature. 2003;421:703–705
  39. Hogg T, Kuekes PJ. Mobile microscopic sensors for high-resolution in vivo diagnostics. Nanomedicine: NBM. 2006;2:239–247
  40. Freitas RA. Nanomedicine. Vol. IIA: biocompatibility. Georgetown (Tex): Landes Bioscience; 2003;Available at: www.nanomedicine.com/NMIIA.htm
  41. Vu TQ, Chowdhury S, Muni NJ, Qian H, Standaert RF, Pepperberg DR. Activation of membrane receptors by a neurotransmitter conjugate designed for surface attachment. Biomaterials. 2005;26:1895–1903
  42. Halloy J, Sempo G, Caprari G, Rivault C, Asadpour M, Tache F, et al. Social integration of robots into groups of cockroaches to control self-organized choices. Science. 2007;318:1155–1158
  43. Llinas RR, Walton KD, Nakao M, Hunter I, Anquetil PA. Neuro-vascular central nervous recording/stimulating system: using nanotechnology probes. J Nanoparticle Res. 2005;7:111–127
  44. Freitas RA. Clottocytes: artificial mechanical platelets. In: IMM Reports. 18:Palo Alto (Calif): Institute for Molecular Manufacturing; 2000;p. 9–11Available at http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep018.html
  45. Leary SP, Liu CY, Apuzzo MLJ. Toward the emergence of nanoneurosurgery: part III—nanomedicine: targeted nanotherapy, nanosurgery, and progress toward the realization of nanoneurosurgery. Neurosurgery. 2006;58:1009–1026
  46. Hogg T. Distributed control of multiscale microscopic chemical sensor networks. J MicroNano Mechatronics. 2008;4:168–177
  47. Sretavan D, Chang W, Keller C, Kliot M. Microscale surgery on axons for nerve injury treatment. Neurosurgery. 2005;57:635–646
  48. Hogg T, Sretavan DW. Controlling tiny multi-scale robots for nerve repair. In:  Veloso M,  Kambhampati S editor. Proceedings of the 20th national conference on artificial intelligence (AAAI2005). Menlo Park, CA: AAAI Press; 2005;p. 1286–1291
  49. Mallouk TE, Sen A. Powering nanorobots. Sci Am. 2009;300:72–77
  50. Soong RK, Bachand GD, Neves HP, Olkhovets AG, Craighead HG, Montemagno CD. Powering an inorganic nanodevice with a biomolecular motor. Science. 2000;290:1555–1558
  51. Wang X, Song J, Liu J, Wang ZL. Direct-current nanogenerator driven by ultrasonic waves. Science. 2007;316:102–105
  52. Tucker R, Katira P, Hess H. Herding nanotransporters: localized activation via release and sequestration of control molecules. Nano Lett. 2008;8:221–226
  53. Bechet D, Couleaud P, Frochot C, Viriot M-L, Guillemin F, Barberi-Heyob M. Nanoparticles as vehicles for delivery of photodynamic therapy agents. Trends Biotechnol. 2008;26:612–621
  54. Chaudhuri SK, Lovley DR. Electricity generation by direct oxidation of glucose in mediatorless microbial fuel cells. Nat Biotechnol. 2003;21:1229–1232
  55. Logan BE, Murano C, Scott K, Gray ND, Head IM. Electricity generation from cysteine in a microbial fuel cell. Water Res. 2005;39:942–952
  56. Malki M, De Lacey AL, Rodríguez N, Amils R, Fernandez VM. Preferential use of an anode as an electron acceptor by an acidophilic bacterium in the presence of oxygen. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008;74:4472–4476
  57. Strang WG, Fix GJ. An analysis of the finite element method. Englewood Cliffs (NJ): Prentice-Hall; 1973;
  58. McGuire BJ, Secomb TW. A theoretical model for oxygen transport in skeletal muscle under conditions of high oxygen demand. J Appl Physiol. 2001;91:2255–2265
  59. Popel AS. Theory of oxygen transport to tissue. Crit Rev Biomed Eng. 1989;17:257–321
  60. Silver FH. Biological materials: structure, mechanical properties, and modeling of soft tissues. New York: New York University Press; 1987;
  61. Purcell EM. Life at low Reynolds number. Am J Phys. 1977;45:3–11
  62. Vogel S. Life in moving fluids. 2nd ed.. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press; 1994;
  63. Fung YC. Biomechanics: circulation. 2nd ed.. New York: Springer; 1997;
  64. Karniadakis G, Beskok A, Aluru N. Microflows and nanoflows: fundamentals and simulation. Berlin: Springer; 2005;
  65. Squires TM, Quake SR. Microfluidics: fluid physics at the nanoliter scale. Rev Modern Phys. 2005;77:977–1026
  66. Fetter AL, Walecka JD. Theoretical mechanics of particles and continua. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1980;
  67. Pozrikidis C. Axisymmetric motion of a file of red blood cells through capillaries. Phys Fluids. 2005;031503:17
  68. Berg HC, Purcell EM. Physics of chemoreception. Biophys J. 1977;20:193–219
  69. Berg HC. Random walks in biology. 2nd ed.. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press; 1993;
  70. Mauroy B. Following red blood cells in a pulmonary capillary. ESAIM Proc. 2008;23:48–65
  71. Clark A, Federspiel WJ, Clark PA, Cokelet GR. Oxygen delivery from red cells. Biophys J. 1985;47:171–181
  72. Geers C, Gros G. Carbon dioxide transport and carbonic anhydrase in blood and muscle. Physiol Rev. 2000;80:681–715
  73. Briggs GE, Haldane JBS. A note on the kinetics of enzyme action. Biochem J. 1925;19:338–339
  74. Keller KH. Effect of fluid shear on mass transport in flowing blood. In: Proceedings of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. 1971;p. 1591–1599
  75. Secomb TW, Hsu R, Pries AR. Motion of red blood cells in a capillary with an endothelial surface layer: effect of flow velocity. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2001;281:H629–H636
  76. Hogg T. Modeling microscopic chemical sensors in capillaries. Open Nanomedicine J. 2009;2:1–9
  77. Hernandez-Ortiz JP, Stoltz CG, Graham MD. Transport and collective dynamics in suspensions of confined swimming particles. Phys Rev Lett. 2005;95:204501
  78. Riedel IH, Kruse K, Howard J. A self-organized vortex array of hydrodynamically entrained sperm cells. Science. 2005;309:300–303
  79. Lerman K, Galstyan A, Martinoli A, Ijspeert AJ. A macroscopic analytical model of collaboration in distributed robotic systems. Artificial Life. 2001;7:375–393
  80. Hogg T. Coordinating microscopic robots in viscous fluids. Autonomous Agents Multi-Agent Systems. 2007;14:271–305
  81. Hamann H, Worn H, Crailsheim K, Schmickl T. Spatial macroscopic models of a bio-inspired robotic swarm algorithm. In:  Chatila R,  Merlet J-P editor. Proceedings of the international conference on intelligent robots and systems (IROS 2008). Sophia-Antipolis, France: INRIA; 2008;p. 1415–1420
  82. Vadapalli A, Goldman D, Popel AS. Calculations of oxygen transport by red blood cells and hemoglobin solutions in capillaries. Artif Cells Blood Substit Immobil Biotechnol. 2002;30:157–188
  83. Bao J, Furumoto K, Fukunaga K, Nakao K. A kinetic study on air oxidation of glucose catalyzed by immobilized glucose oxidase for production of calcium gluconate. Biochem Eng J. 2001;8:91–102
  84. COMSOL Group. Comsol multiphysics. Stockholm (Sweden): COMSOL Group; 2008;Available at: http://www.comsol.com/multiphysics
  85. Krogh A. The number and distribution of capillaries in muscles with calculations of the oxygen pressure head necessary for supplying the tissue. J Physiol. 1919;52:409–415
  86. Hogg T, Huberman BA. Dynamics of large autonomous computational systems. In:  Tumer K,  Wolpert D editor. Collectives and the design of complex systems. New York: Springer; 2004;p. 295–315
  87. Hogg T. Diffusion to a spherical reactor. The Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Available at: http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/DiffusionToASphericalReactor/2009;
  88. Discher DE, Janmey P, Wang Y. Tissue cells feel and respond to the stiffness of their substrate. Science. 2005;310:1139–1143
  89. Deroanne CF, Lapiere CM, Nusgens BV. In vitro tubulogenesis of endothelial cells by relaxation of the coupling extracellular matrix-cytoskeleton. Cardiovasc Res. 2001;49:647–658
  90. Szczerba D, Szekely G, Kurz H. A multiphysics model of capillary growth and remodeling. In:  Alexandrov VN,  van Albada GD,  Sloot PMA,  Dongarra J editor. Proceedings of ICCS, part II. Berlin: Springer; 2006;p. 86–93
  91. Freitas RA. The end of heart disease. Palo Alto (Calif): Institute for Molecular Manufacturing; 1996;
  92. Schoene RB. Illnesses at high altitude. Chest. 2008;134:402–416
  93. Bailey AM, O'Neill TJ, Morris CE, Peirce SM. Arteriolar remodeling following ischemic injury extends from capillary to large arteriole in the microcirculation. Microcirculation. 2008;15:389–404
  94. Brown MD, Kent J, Kelsall CJ, Milkiewicz M, Hudlicka O. Remodeling in the microcirculation of rat skeletal muscle during chronic ischemia. Microcirculation. 2003;10:179–191
  95. Soter NA, Lweis RA, Corey EJ, Austen KF. Local effects of synthetic leukotrienes (LTC4, LTD4, LTE4, and LTB4) in human skin. J Invest Dermatol. 1983;80:115–119
  96. Sekar K. Inhaled nitric oxide in term and preterm infants. J Perinatol. 2006;26:S4–S7[discussion S22–S23]
  97. Erslev AJ, Beutler E. Production and destruction of erythrocytes. In:  Beutler E,  Lichtman M,  Coller B,  Kipps T,  Seligsohn U editor. Williams hematology. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1995;p. 425–441
  98. Cassandra AR, Kaelbling LP, Littman ML. Acting optimally in partially observable stochastic domains. In: Proceedings of the 12th National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI94). Menlo Park (Calif): AAAI Press; 1994;p. 1023–1028
  99. Seuken S, Zilberstein S. Formal models and algorithms for decentralized decision making under uncertainty. Autonomous Agents Multi-Agent Systems. 2008;17:190–250
  100. Arbuckle D, Requicha AAG. Active self-assembly. In:  Tarn T-J,  Fukuda T editor. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE; 2004;p. 896–901
  101. Whitesides GM, Grzybowski B. Self-assembly at all scales. Science. 2002;295:2418–2421
  102. Griffith S, Goldwater D, Jacobson JM. Robotics: self-replication from random parts. Nature. 2005;437:636
  103. Bonabeau E, Dorigo M, Theraulaz G. Swarm intelligence: from natural to artificial systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1999;
  104. Gazi V, Passino KM. Stability analysis of social foraging swarms. IEEE Trans Systems Man Cybernetics. 2004;B34:539–557
  105. Vicsek T, Czirok A, Ben-Jacob E, Cohen I, Shochet O. Novel type of phase transition in a system of self-driven particles. Phys Rev Lett. 1995;75:1226–1229
  106. Allen TM, Cullis PR. Drug delivery systems: entering the mainstream. Science. 2004;303:1818–1822

 R.A.F. acknowledges private grant support for this work from the Life Extension Foundation and the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing. TH acknowledges support from Hewlett-Packard Laboratories.

PII: S1549-9634(09)00190-7

doi: 10.1016/j.nano.2009.10.002

Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine
Volume 6, Issue 2 , Pages 298-317 , April 2010

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution